Role of Quakers in the Abolitionist Movement

Introduction The history of the movement meant to put an end to slavery dates back to the establishment of slavery in America. In the West, millions of African slaves were entrenched in to the American labor force from the beginning of the 16th century and were not freed until the last decade of the 19th century. Unlike the modern day slavery, America’s economy was dependent on the labor of slaves whose masters treated them unfairly.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Role of Quakers in the Abolitionist Movement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More During that time, very few people spoke against slavery since they were satisfied with the status quo. However, the Quakers from the very beginning came out strongly to criticize slavery, which they viewed as immoral. Even though some members within the church were slaveholders, they soon banned the ownership of slaves among themselves in a move that they beli eved would set an example for others to follow. 1 Throughout the slavery period, Quakers distributed pamphlets and staged demonstrations that finally gave rise to the abolitionist movement. History of the Quakers The Friends Church was begun over three centuries ago. The church was established by George Fox who was an Anglican before he began feeling that there was more to religion than what was being offered by the Anglican Church. When he was only 19 years old, George Fox moved across churches looking for an answer to his questions but he never got them. Apparently, the Church of England, which was the official religion at the time, was too sophisticated for the common person and many people felt that it did not address their needs. 2 This desire to find a connection and inner peace with God led George Fox to establish an association of â€Å"Friends† after the exhortation given by Jesus in John 15:15 where he called the believers his Friends. However, there were people who opposed the changes that this â€Å"Friends† were bringing to the church and they branded them â€Å"Quakers† after the manner in which they trembled when speaking of their newfound faith. Instead of taking the name in a negative manner, the Friends felt that it complemented them and they decided to adopt the name as their official logo. 3 Since the foundation of the church in 1647, the Quakers focused on passing across the message that Jesus Christ was the answer to all problems. This saw many people who were tired of the formal religion coming forward to join the movement that was offering them something â€Å"real† as opposed to what the Church of England was offering. In reality, the one thing that was attracting people to the Friends was their doctrine.Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Quakers viewed slavery as unjust and this compelled them to for m an anti-slavery group, the first in history. Throughout the 18th century, the Quakers initiated a strong opposition against slavery. This fight by the Quakers saw the number of abolitionists go up and by 1830, the issue had already become a political matter in America. 4 To many people, the Quakers were perceived to be drastic people. The reason for this was their deep sated belief that before God, all people were equal, and every person had the privilege of receiving God’s salvation and wisdom. Additionally, this Society of Friends was against any form of cruelty and they lived simple lives, which differentiated them from the mainstream church. This conviction led them to view slavery as morally wrong and they spent most of their time preaching against this vice. Just a few years after its establishment, the Quakers Society began opposing slavery and this marked the beginning of the Abolitionist Movement. In 1696, Quakers made a public declaration renouncing slavery and r enewed their calls to fight the vice. 5 Before this declaration, the founder of the Quakers group had stated his detest for slavery but never took tangible steps to fight the vice. During that time, there were still leaders in the Quaker group who owned slaves thus making the issue divisive within the church. Despite this being the case, some of the Quaker leaders such as Benjamin Lay continued to push for the abolition of slaveholding within the church. In one of his searing addresses, Lay termed the practice as â€Å"Hellish† and a â€Å"filthy sin†¦the greatest sin in the world, of the very nature of Hell itself, and is the Belly of Hell.† 6 This sharp criticism brought an awakening within the group and soon many members began questioning the morality of the leaders who owned slaves within the Friend Society. This led to the replacement of leaders who owned slaves with others who abhorred the practice. Although this was a gradual process, it gave way to the en actment of the popular â€Å"Act for the Gradual Abolishment of Slaver† in Pennsylvania. By the time that this was happening, all the Quakers were against slavery and they had become members of the abolitionist movement. 7 Key Figures in the Movement Upon coming to America, Quakers were viewed as dangerous heretics and they often underwent persecution by people who termed them as Witches. Since these Quakers were not welcome in most states, they found asylum in Rhode Island, which had tolerance towards minority groups. The first Quakers who came to America went on to become key figures both in the Friends Society and in the formation of the Abolition Movement. 8 Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Role of Quakers in the Abolitionist Movement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More William Penn William Penn who lived from 1644-1718 is believed to have been one of the most instrumental figures in the Quaker s Society in America. With the help of his friends, Penn is said to have aided in the establishment of Pennsylvania colony, which later came to be the center for American Quakers and went ahead to be the first colony to abolish slavery. As the years progressed, Pennsylvania became the only state where people with divergent people would congregate without the fear for reprisals. Under the group doctrines, Penn insisted that women needed to be accorded their due respect since this was in tandem with God’s view of equality. Being one of the founders of the Pennsylvania State, Penn helped the colony to come up with a constitution that was credited with placing power in the hands of citizens other than concentrating it on the government. The constitution drafted by Penn also provided a humane Penal Code for offenders and ensured that the fundamental rights for everyone were respected. Under this constitution, many slaves took their masters to court protesting against the inhumane treatment they were receiving. The lenient terms outlined in this constitution enabled the Quaker group to blossom and provided them with a forum for their criticism of slavery. 9 George Keith George Keith was an energetic Quaker who was mainly credited with producing numerous pamphlets that spoke against the enslavement of Africans. Even before Quakers began opposing slavery, Keith had already published a pamphlet titled â€Å"An exhortation and caution to Friends concerning the buying and selling of Negroes.† In the 1693 publication, Keith criticized the Quakers leadership for its failure to take a strong stand against slavery. He termed the enslavement of Africans as human rights violation and claimed that those who were supporting slavery within the church were erring and called for their repentance. This statement put Keith on a collision path with the church leadership and led to his disownment two years later. Even after his exit, other members picked up Keith’ s message and the leadership of the Quakers was forced to comply with their demands. This made George Keith an important figure in the Abolitionist Movement. 10 William Southeby After fellow Friends disowned George Keith, things seemed to cool down a bit within the movement. However, another Quaker William Southeby who died in 1720 picked up from where Keith had left and continued making calls for the society to disown slavery. What made Southeby’s calls weightier was because unlike the others before him he was a Native American. Like Keith before him, Southeby kept on publishing attacks on those who imported and held slaves. Encouraged by his courageousness, other Native American Quakers joined the abolition movement making it even stronger. 11Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Benjamin Lay The Quaker Benjamin Lay came in to the limelight in the 1730’s when he and other Quaker abolitionists led by John Woolman and Anthony Benezet came out in strong opposition to slavery. Before he began opposing slavery, Lay had been a renowned West Indian slaveholder and many slaveholders therefore heeded his calls. Instead of choosing the diplomatic way, Lay adopted a more confrontational method where he could kidnap the children of slaveholders apparently to acquaint the child with the grief of slaves. This antislavery tactics made him a key figure among abolitionists and even fellow Quakers. Lay also contributed to Woolman’s 1754 publication titled Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes, which criticized the notion of valuing money over the lives of Negroes. 12 John Woolman Quaker John Woolman was drawn in to the abolitionist movement from an early age. In fact, Woolman spent most of his life traversing the country to preach on the ills of slavery. When he was 20 years, Woolman shocked his friends when he began talking openly on the ills of slavery. This was in response to a request by his boss to draft a bill of sale for a slave girl to which he complied but not before expressing his thoughts on the matter. Immediately after this incident, Woolman quit his job and traversed the country preaching the abolitionist gospel. 13 Anthony Benezet Anthony Benezet was also another Quaker who worked closely with Lay and Woolman in their opposition to slavery. Throughout his life, Benezet dedicated his life to the course of abolishing slavery and he had a collection of nearly every publication on antislavery. As an ardent abolitionist, Benezet also corresponded with abolitionists living outside America and kept on updating them on how the situation was on the ground. His love for slaves led him to establish a school for slave children in his home compound, which went on to become the first Negro school in the United States. Under his l eadership, Quakers unanimously resolved to bar any slaveholder from the church in order to set an example to the rest of the world. 14 Levi Coffin The Quakers sensitivity to the needs of freed slaves compelled them to devise a safe passage to ensure that the slaves were not recaptured until they got into the Northern states or other places where slavery was banned. To achieve this mission, the Quakers devised an â€Å"Underground Railroad† (UGRR), which was simply a means for slaves to move safely from one place to the other. By 1835, thousands of people majority of who were Quakers operated the UGRR. One of the men credited with devising the UGRR was Levi Coffin. During his lifetime, Coffin who was a Quaker businessperson devoted most of his time to the UGRR a contribution that earned him the title of Presidency for the underground movement. Indeed, the Coffin’s are said to have hidden a group of escaped slaves for more than 21 years. Later, Coffin confessed to havin g aided close to 3,000 slaves using the UGRR. This made him a key figure in the abolitionist movement. 15 Lucretia Mott Susan Anthony Several female Quakers worked side by side with the men to fight for women’s rights and put an end to slavery. One of these women Lucretia Mott, a Quaker leader and reformer worked tirelessly to ensure that the rights of women were respected and had a desire to see slavery wiped out. On her part, Susan B. Anthony who had been born to Quaker parents endeavored to see slavery banned even as she fought for women rights to vote. According to Anthony, denying women the right to vote was tantamount to slavery since there was no provision in the constitution that denied women and slaves their absolute rights. Although neither Mott nor Anthony lived long enough to see the fruits of their struggle, their efforts were undoubtedly rewarded since their campaign helped in strengthening the Abolitionist Movement. 16 Observations The Quakers contribution t o the Abolition Movement is unquestionable. In fact, their boldness gave other abolitionists courage and led to the formation of the first anti-slavery group in America. Throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries, the Quakers traversed the country giving sermons and spreading anti-slavery messages. Their involvement saw all their members free the slaves they possessed and they failed to buy or sell any products made by slaves. Throughout this period, the Quakers produced publications urging the Congress to outlaw slavery and slave trade. Finally, the importance that the Quakers gave the matter made other people realize that it warranted attention and soon an abolitionist movement was born. This abolitionist movement finally saw the outlawing of slavery in 1888 thus ending the slavery era that spanned three centuries. 17 Conclusion The road leading to the abolition of slave trade was not an easy one. For close to three decades, slaves of African origin toiled in white farms without receiving any meaningful pay for their services. Due to the contribution that the slaves were making to the economy, their presence became an accepted way of life thus making many people not to address the matter. However, the start of the 18th century saw Quakers begin to question the morality of slavery and slave trade. Although some Quakers owned slaves, this soon changed and nearly every slaveholder within the church liberated the slaves that he owned. This was meant to set a moral example for many to follow since majority of these people could not imagine a life without slaves. Throughout the slavery period, the Quakers provided freed slaves with safe passages to areas that did not support slavery. This boldness encouraged many people to join the abolitionist movement, which finally led to the abolition of slavery. Notes 1Ferrell Claudine, The Abolitionist Movement (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006), 66-76 2Larry Ingle. First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quaker ism. (Oxford University Press, 1994), 28-55. 3 Ibid, 31. 4 Ibid, 34. 5 Judy Cameron and Rosemary Bachelor, â€Å"Quakers in the Anti-Slavery Movement.† The Second Boat 17 (Winter 1998): 102-118. 6 David Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture. (Oxford University Press, 1988), 94-104. 7Cameron and Bachelor, 104 8 Gary Nash and Jean Soderlund, Freedom by Degrees: Emancipation in Pennsylvania and its Aftermath. (Oxford University Press, 1991), 101-108. 9James Huston, â€Å"The Experiential Basis of the Northern Antislavery Impulse.† Journal of Southern History 56 (November 1990): 609–640. 10 Ibid, 613. 11 Ibid, 618. 12 Davis, 98. 13 Ibid, 101. 14 Ibid, 104. 15 William Switala, Underground Railroad in New Jersey and New York. (Stackpole Books, 2006), 67-81. 16 Ibid, 76. 17 Claudine, 71. Bibliography Cameron, Judy, and Bachelor, Rosemary, â€Å"Quakers in the Anti-Slavery Movement.† The Second Boat 17 (Winter 1998): 102-118. Claudine, Ferrell. The Abo litionist Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. Davis, David. The Problem of Slavery in western Culture. Oxford University Press, 1988. Huston, James. â€Å"The Experiential Basis of the Northern Antislavery Impulse.† Journal of Southern History 56 (November 1990): 609–640. Ingle, Larry. First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism. Oxford University Press, 1994. Nash, Gary and Soderlund, Jean. Freedom by Degrees: Emancipation in Pennsylvania and its Aftermath. Oxford University Press, 1991. Switala, William. Underground Railroad in New Jersey and New York. Stackpole Books, 2006. This research paper on Role of Quakers in the Abolitionist Movement was written and submitted by user Countess to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Project Management Implementation Strategies

Project Management Implementation Strategies Free Online Research Papers Project Management Implementation Strategies Project Management is the operations function of Sonoran Steel Services. The lone member of this department must divide time between other departments. Typically, he spends about 8 hours a day in these functions. As the company grows, there is a risk that this department may become overloaded. With current revenue projections, it will become necessary to hire another project management trainee within two years. Duties in this department are as follows: Interaction with customer Contract Management Purchasing Scheduling Change order costing and management Subcontractor management Management of records And More Sonoran is a steel re-seller or broker. The marketing department sells a project and it is this department’s duty to execute the contract. Steel fabrication is a custom or job process. Krajewski and Ritzman, 2000, describe a job process as one that â€Å"creates the flexibility needed to produce a variety of products in significant quantities†. Almost every project in construction is unique. Occasionally, similar projects will be built, but identical projects are extremely rare. This forces drafting firms, fabricators, erectors, and project managers to review each project and develop schedules and manufacturing plans for that unique project. Very little inventory is maintained in a steel fabrication shop. Operating similar to a â€Å"Just in Time† manufacturing facility, all materials are ordered and scheduled for delivery as they are needed. Storage is kept to no more than two weeks inventory. There is such a vast array of material sizes and specifications; there is no other reasonable way to provide the materials needed. Sonoran will purchase material directly from the steel warehouses for some projects and will buy materials from the fabrication shops on smaller projects. No management of inventory is required for Sonoran. While not in the possession of the latest technology and software, Sonoran has a file of spreadsheets that have been developed over the past five years. These ease the transfer and storage of information. Fewer documents need to be stored as hard copy. Enlisting the use of the Internet for both gathering and transmitting information saves the company time and money. Project Management situation analysis PROJECT MANAGEMENT STRENGTHS ? 20 years construction experience ? Relative strengths ? Multiple seminars ? Core competencies ? Taught by a great mentor ? Key factors of success ? Scheduling tools ? Very good understanding of the whole project ? Establishes good relationships with contractors ? Excellent computer skills ? Skillful negotiator ? Works toward greater good of subcontractors ? Good mentor and trainer The company principal, Richard Oxford, has extensive experience in the steel industry. He has attended many seminars on project management, time management and negotiation. To add to this, he was trained by one of the best managers in the steel industry. With over 40 years in the steel industry, his mentor was a strong influence in Mr. Oxford’s development. Mr. Oxford has successfully managed several projects greater than $10,000,000 in value. This requires a deep understanding of project scheduling and schedule maintenance. Mr. Oxford also has a history of extremely good relationships with contractors. Many of the projects that Sonoran is able to bid are opportunities given by people with whom he has previously worked. One reason he is able to establish such relationships is his understanding of the larger project and the impact of steel fabrication and installation on other trades. This understanding and concern has built lasting relationships that are paying off today. PM Weaknesses Only one person with time divided Can get overloaded and not take care of projects Not a strong estimator Works from small home office As with any single employee company, there is a risk of being too successful. This leads to overloading. With the need to divide time between sales, estimating, finance, and project management it is easy to miss an important task. Working from a home office saves money, but is somewhat cramped. There is occasionally the need to spread out multiple plan sets. Another weakness is that the project manager often needs to provide estimates for change order work. The financial situation at the company has forced the owner to become an estimator. These projects are all hard bids. If a project is underbid, the company has to absorb the loss. PM Opportunities Available upgraded scheduling tools New hire to expand capacity Freedom to develop new PM systems as necessary There is relatively cheap scheduling software available called SureTrac Project Manager. This software costs approximately $500 and is able to perform more than enough tasks to manage schedule on steel projects. This software would allow the company to track multiple projects on any interval it chooses. Resource loading options can be used to track project finances. Basic Excel software is also extremely versatile. It is easy to develop job specific spreadsheets from this platform. The company’s intended growth will require departmental growth. This will require the hiring of a new project manager. Several areas can be tapped for potential employees: ? Shop Personnel ? Other companies project management teams ? Detailers ? Estimators ? Field personnel ? Recent construction management graduates Any intelligent individual from one of these areas can be trained in the art of project management. Each of these areas would bring strengths and weaknesses. Computer and communication skills are a must. PM Threats Overloading Schedule interruptions by general contractors Non performing subcontractors Bad budgets from sales The greatest threat to quality project management is job overloading. It is not always easy to predict how and when this will happen. Projects are bid to fill schedule holes, but sometimes the schedules slip or are accelerated. The general contractor may not be performing in a proper manner causing the steel schedule to slip into a conflicting position with another project. Subcontractors sometimes do not perform at expectation. All of these factors lead to overloading of the project team and possibly to poor performance. PM Trends Greater technology Electronic data transfer Global subcontracting Like many other industries, steel management is moving toward higher levels of technology. New computer programs that feed design information into â€Å"Computer Numerically Controlled† equipment is the latest development. This ends the need to duplicate information from one functional area to another. Electronic data transfer has greatly increased the speed of information transfer. Project management is nothing without information transfer. Electronic files containing complete sets of design drawings are e-mailed around the world. This has led to increase in global subcontracting. There are many low cost, high quality detailers available in East Asia and South America. This could be a cost advantage for Sonoran. Project Management Strategic Objectives 1. Project Manual 2. Develop purchasing methodology 3. Add new Personnel 4. Train new project manager 5. Online drawing Transfer The goals in this functional area are developed around improving the department by developing better purchasing methods, hiring and training new personnel. If the company intends a 50% rate of growth, it will be necessary to develop a project manual to maintain consistency in project management. It is critical that high quality consistent management be provided to contractors. This consistency will develop into consistent profits. Project Management Implementation strategies 1. Project Manual 06/30/2001 ? Determine functional areas 12/31/2001 ? Develop or adjust spread sheets 02/28/2001 ? Text development for each area 05/30/2001 The intent of a project manual is to develop a consistent set of procedures to follow for each project. While it is usually easy for one individual to be consistent, it is difficult for multiple individuals to act in the exact same manner. A project manual will be used to help train new project managers in proper job methodology. This will lead to consistent documentation, filing systems, and measurements of job costs. The intent is not to clone the founder, but to recreate things that work. Latitude will be given for personal creativity. 2. Add new personnel 12/31/2001 ? Job description 09/31/2001 ? Hiring strategy 10/31/2001 ? Interviews 12/01/2001 Future employees at the company will wear many different hats. It is important to write a good job description of the employee’s duties. This will help both the owner and new hire. From this description, it will be easier to determine the kind of individual that will best fill the companies need. A strategy for seeking such individuals will be developed and interviews scheduled. With current market conditions, the duration of the strategy development stage and interview stage may be greater than the month allowed. 3. Training 12/31/2002 ? Introduce job sets 01/03/2001 ? Plan reading 01/10/2001 ? First Project 02/01/2001 ? Estimating 06/01/2001 Training is intended to be a multi-year project. A quality project manager will take 3 to 5 years to develop. Training will include many more phases than are listed. These are the basics of development. Much training will be hands on and by observation of the existing project managers. The first project will be awarded very early in the process. At this stage of company development, the senior project manager should have time to mentor the new project manager through several projects. The company is small enough that help will always be near. 4. Purchasing methodology 03/30/2001 ? Interview steel purchasers 11/20/2000 ? Develop needs analysis for company 01/31/2001 ? Needs analysis for sub-fabricators 02/28/2001 Purchasing is a function that many companies relegate to another department. At Sonoran, this function will be performed by the project manager. To develop a purchasing methodology, informal interviews will be staged with steel purchasers in the city. From these interviews, and interviews with sub-fabricators, a needs analysis will be conducted to establish proper and profitable formatting for the purchasing plan. Software is available, but it is very expensive. NPV analysis of the software purchase shall also be conducted. 5. Online drawing transfer 12/31/2003 ? Equipment analysis 06/30/2003 ? Software Analysis 07/30/2003 ? Lease or buy plotter 10/31/2003 ? Lease or buy computer 11/30/2003 This function is not just the wave of the future, it is now. Hardware and software is extremely expensive. It will be two to three years before the cost can be justified. It is possible to use equipment from other sources. The detailers generally possess the proper equipment to e-mail drawing files and plot incoming files. If the company intends to use international firms to do detailing functions, it can pay printing firms to plot the drawings. This is expensive, but not as expensive as equipment purchase. Ideally, the cost analysis will allow for the purchase of the equipment in three years. SUMMARY The project management department has more strength than any other department in the company. The company is based upon selling project management services. A weakness is in purchasing management. Work needs to be done to improve this process. Technologically, the company needs to make improvements. While the technology is available, money for such equipment and software is not available at this time. It will be necessary to closely monitor the workload within the department, especially with the shared duties the lone employee possesses. With the companies intended growth, it will become necessary to hire and probably train another project manager within the next 15 months. Mr. Oxford is very qualified to train such a manager. Research Papers on Project Management Implementation StrategiesThe Project Managment Office SystemAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalDefinition of Export QuotasBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductResearch Process Part OneTwilight of the UAWOpen Architechture a white paperPETSTEL analysis of India

Broken Window Concept Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Broken Window Concept - Essay Example The evolution of policing in the United States has transcended over time for the ultimate goal of according protection to the general population. There were diverse strategies employed by public police forces aiming to improve security and safety, and to decrease the incidence of crime. One of the most commendable approaches introduced was the broken windows concept. In this regard, the objective of this essay is to proffer relevant and critical issues pertinent to the broken window concept of the policing field and its connection to social disorder as described by George L. Kelling James Wilson and George Kelling introduced the broken windows theory in their discourse of the same title published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1982. The authors examined a pattern in proliferation of crime and disorder using this theory. Accordingly, â€Å"if a window in a building is broken and left unrepaired, all the rest of the windows will soon be broken as well. The unrepaired window is a signal that no one cares and so breaking more windows will not result in official sanction. This type of vandalism can occur anywhere once the sense of mutual regard and the obligations of civility are lowered by actions that seem to signal a lack of common concern† (Orange News & Press, 2009, par. 3). The concept tries to analyze the effect and influence of wanton disregard for replacing order in the community to police enforcement of peace and order. Several scholars tried to test its validity using experiments and statistical data regression analysis over specified periods of time. The findings are diverse and interesting in the light is determining the direct relation of the broken windows theory to crime deterrence. The concept is actually grounded in philosophical and psychological theories of human behavior. According to a study conducted by Karim Kanji (n.d.) entitled The State of Broken Windows in New York, he specifically aimed to test the validity of the concept in relation to

California is the nation's greatest state (sorry Texas) Essay

California is the nation's greatest state (sorry Texas) - Essay Example To measure the highly ranked stake between the two states, the variables under consideration include crime rate, employment rate, housing costs, access to employment, health insurance, education level and excellence, mortality rate, health, property tax, and pollution from industrialization, tourist attractions, income, and human activities. Overall, California stands a better chance of appealing to visitors and residents with the friendly socioeconomic environment. Less property tax influenced residents to invest in real estate that business owners can operate from their own premises other than renting working space. On the other hand, high property tax increases reduces the accessibility and acquisition of permanent housing or investment in some types of business such as those requiring the construction of complex premises. Between California and Texas, California stands a better chance of attracting investors and permanent property ownership. This is because as of 2013, California’s property tax was at an average of 0.80% against Texas average of 1.74%. By default, home buyers and other structure buyers are more likely to invest in a state where property tax is more accommodating (Wile, para. 6). The considerate property tax has also influenced better academic institution development leading to a higher graduation rate in California as compared to Texas. It is observed that nations with good and reliable education system attract higher graduation rates than nations that do not have the same quality if education systems. The US’s higher learning institutions are renowned for producing higher quality academic elites. However, general education system cannot tell a lot about specific states such as Texas and California. In its quest to support the national education quality, California has developed an education system that sees

Hospers' view that the unconsciousness that determines what the Essay

Hospers' view that the unconsciousness that determines what the conscious impulse and conscious acts will be is correct - Essay Example The author takes a position that the unconscious is very instrumental in determining the conscious deeds. Man’s actions may be influenced by various factors depending on the prevailing conditions; some of these conditions are within their control while others are not. Hospers argues that the concept of freewill is an illusion because ‘an act is free if and only if it is a voluntary act’. Using examples, he demonstrates that acting involuntarily dominates over voluntary actions. In many quarters, the debate of whether individuals act on freewill has been demonstrated. The proponents argue that freewill is nonexistent because the influence of the unconscious dominates over an individual (Blatchford 41). Citing the situation at birth where a child learns from the environment and the process continues with further development, the argument says that the influences of all those experiences are the ones that bring out the actions of an individual. The way a person acts is not a factor of their willingness but an inner push by the subconscious. A man is a product of their unconscious since their choices are biased. Humans make choices every day. Choices are not justifiable if they do not incorporate the aspect of freewill based on non-coercion. In a case where a person finds himself or herself torn between giving their money to thieves or otherwise they take away his life, making such a decision cannot be termed as freewill because the person is not willing to do either, only that he is limited to make a choice. Whenever a person makes a choice, there are factors inherent in the person that influences the choice (British Philosophical Association 2). In his article, Hospers gives a very convincing example stating that the paralytic are unable to move their legs while the others can, depicting that the limitations are not reliant on the choice of the individual but the credibility of the choice. What gets into the mind of a person indirectly influen ces their actions. Many are the compulsions that influence the humans without their knowledge. The perception that whatever we do is based on an informed choice may be far from the truth. The influences mould people are beyond our control, it is a wrong perception based on a misplaced attitude that am acting like myself, when the reality is that the factors surrounding an individual create an experience that forms the basis of their judgments and choices (British Philosophical Association 4). The actions we demonstrate are out of our control, character formation is an aspect that is based on a myriad of factors such as environmental and genetic that is far beyond our control. The exact character developed influences what we desire that further translates to what we do. Therefore, our actions are a product of a strong inherent will within us that has no individual control, if there was a possibility an individual could act otherwise. The experiences gained in the course of life creat es a bias on the decisions made, a situation that we are unable to distinguish as unconscious. Considering the parts of the unconscious mind, it is evident that they influence every bit of a person’s being. The id is the section that seeks instant fulfillment; it touches on our instincts and primitivity. Therefore, based on the choice to be made these two factors influences the decisions we make. The choice made by a chief executive of a large corporation is based

Speaking Skills Issues And Solution English Language Essay

Speaking Skills Issues And Solution English Language Essay For the longest time, the idea of testing language have always revolved around testing the knowledge of the language itself but now, the idea of testing for communicative competence is getting more and more popular. In testing communicative competence, speaking and listening tasks are commonly used. Those require tasks such as the completion of an information gap and role play (Kitao Kitao, 1996). As teachers of ESL, it is imperative for us to enhance the students delivery skills, increase their confidence, and develop their methods of organization and critical thinking skills. In order to do this, a valid and reliable way of assessment to determine whether the set goals were met is required. The oral communication field needs a clear-cut method of evaluation as can be found in discrete language skill classes such as listening comprehension (Nakamura Valens, 2001). Language teachers and language testers need a method which takes subjective qualitative observations and then transforms them into objective quantitative measures. A critical issue in the assessment is the selection of criteria for evaluating performance. Stiggins (as cited in Butler Stevens, 1997) points out that the selection of these criteria should be one of the first steps in designing performance assessments. Students should understand ahead of time what is expected of them. This can actually help them determine on what basis their performance will be judged. When students are actively involved in establishing assessment criteria for tasks, they do not only have a better understanding of what is expected of them when they perform the tasks, but they will be able to more fully appreciate why the criteria are important (Butler Stevens, 1997). The Issue of Assessing Speaking Skills. Speaking is probably one of the most difficult skills to test. It combines skills that may have little or no correlation with each other, and which do not do well to objective testing. In ( Kitao Kitao, 1996), it was mentioned that there are not yet good answers to questions about the criteria for testing these skills and the weighing of these factors. It is possible to find people who can produce the different sounds of a foreign language appropriately; hence they lack the ability to communicate their ideas correctly. This is one of the difficulties that testers encounter when testing the oral production of learners. However, the opposite situation could occur as well; some people do have the ability of expressing their ideas clearly, but at the same time they cannot pronounce all the sounds correctly. Another difficulty is the actual implementation of speaking skills testing. That is because it is difficult to test a large number of learners in a relatively short time. Therefore, the examiner is put under great pressure (Heaton, 1988). The next difficulty is that speaking and listening skills are very much related to one another; it is impossible to keep them mutually exclusive. In most cases, there is an interchange between listening and speaking, and speaking appropriately depends on comprehending spoken input. Therefore, this has an impact on testing speaking because the testers will not know whether they are testing purely speaking or speaking and listening together. Finally, the assessment and scoring of speaking skills is one of its biggest problems. If possible, it is better to record the examinees performance and the scoring will be done upon listening to the tape. The aspects of speaking that are considered part of its assessment include grammar, pronunciation, fluency, content, organization, and vocabulary. (Kitao Kitao, 1996). Depending on the situation and the purpose of the test, testers need to choose the appropriate methods and techniques of testing. The Solution: Method of Assessing Speaking Skills. 3.1. Monologue, Dialogue and Multilogue Speaking Test. Nakamura Valens (2001) conducted a study on Japanese graduate students at Keio University. They used three different types of speaking tests as a form of assessment. The first type is the Monologue Speaking Test which is also called the presentation. Students were asked to perform some tasks such as; show and tell where they talk about anything they choose. This gives the students a chance to make a mini presentation. The second type is Dialogue Speaking Test which is also known as the interview. It is an open-ended test where the students lead a discussion with the teacher, and students in that kind of test are required to use conversation skills that they have learned before. The third type is Multilogue Speaking Test that is also called the discussion and debating. Here, the discussions are student-generated, and students are put into groups where as a group, they decide on a topic they feel would be of interest for the rest of the classroom. The evaluation criteria that was used in that study was as follows: Evaluation Items: Presentations: Content Language Eye contact Interviews: Comprehensibility Pronunciation Fluency Ability to explain an idea Discussing and debating: Able to be part of the conversation to help it flow naturally Uses fillers/ additional questions to include others in conversation Transfers skills used in dialogues to group discussions The rating scale ranged between poor and good with the symbols from 1 to 4. The finding of their study reveals that among the three test types, the discussion tests was the most difficult followed by interview test and the presentation test. In Malaysia, we saw a similar system being implemented but were poorly regulated and too restrictive. Dialogues are used in the school-based assessment and Monologues and Multilogues are common in both school-based assessment and the MUET speaking test. Although it follows this model, it failed to accurately gauge students speaking ability as the tests were poorly regulated (prevalent in school-based assessment) and too restrictive (MUET). 3.2. Testing speaking using visual material Without even comprehending spoken or written material, it is possible to test speaking using visuals such as pictures, diagrams, and maps. Through a careful selection of material, the testers can control the use of vocabulary and the grammatical structures as required. There are different types of visual materials that range in their difficulty to suit all the levels of learners. One common stimulus material could be a series of pictures showing a story, where the student should describe. It requires the student to put together a coherent narrative. Another way to do that is by putting the pictures in a random order of the story to a group of student. The students decide on the sequence of the pictures without showing them to each other, and then put them down in the order that they have decided on. They then have the opportunity to reorder the pictures if they feel it is necessary. In the Malaysian context, this system is already in use in the school-based oral assessment for primar y school. Another way of using visual stimulus is by giving two students similar pictures with slight differences between them, and without seeing each others pictures they describe their own pictures in order to figure out the differences. However, there is a problem in using visual stimulus in testing speaking, it lies in that the choice of the materials used must be something that all the students can interpret equally well, since if one student has a difficulty understanding the visual information, it will influence the way he/she is evaluated (Kitao Kitao, 1996). 3.3. The Taped Oral Proficiency Test In that approach, the students performances are recorded on tapes and then assessed later by the examiner. This method has some advantage and some disadvantages. According to Cartier (1980), one disadvantage of the taped test is that it is less personal; the examinee is talking to a machine and not to a person. Another disadvantage is that it has a low validity. Moreover, the taped test is inflexible; if something goes wrong during the recording, it is virtually impossible to adjust for it. On the other hand, there are some advantages of that type of test. It can be given to a group of students in a language lab, it is more standardized and more objective since each student receives identical stimuli, and scoring can be performed at the most convenient or economical time and location. I believe that the taped test method is very practical when it comes to testing large numbers of students where the teacher would not have enough time to assess each one of them individually. However, the problem lies in not having enough language labs in some schools which, in turn, creates a big difficulty for teachers. Conclusion Previous research on classroom testing of ESL speech skills provides several models of both task types and rubrics for rating, and suggestions regarding procedures for testing speaking with large numbers of learners. However, there is no clear, widely disseminated consensus in the profession on the appropriate paradigm to guide the testing and rating of learner performance in a new language, either from second language acquisition research or from the best practices of successful teachers. While there is similarity of descriptors from one rubric to another in professional publications, these statements are at best subjective. Thus, the rating of learners performance rests heavily on individual instructors interpretations of those descriptors (Pino, 1998). In spite of the difficulties inherent in testing speaking, a speaking test can be a source of beneficial backwash. If speaking is tested, unless it is tested at a very low level, such as reading aloud, this encourages the teaching of speaking in classes. In my opinion, testing speaking skills could be a very interesting experience, and it gives teachers an opportunity to creative in selecting the test items and materials. Moreover, it has a great impact on students by making them enjoy taking the test and feel comfortable doing so if the teacher chooses the materials that interest their students and that is suitable to their age and levels of knowledge. References Butler, F. A., Stevens, R. (1997) Oral languages assessment in the classroom. Theory Into Practice, 36 (4). 214-219. Cartier, F. A. (1980). Alternative methods of oral proficiency assessment. In J. R. Firth (Ed.), Measuring spoken language proficiency (7-14). GA: Georgetown University. Heaton, J. B. (1988). Writing English language tests. Longman. Kitao, S. K., Kitao, K. (1996). Testing speaking (Report No.TM025215). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED398261) Kitao, S. K., Kitao, K. (1996). Testing communicative competence (Report No. TM025214). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED398260) Nakamura, Y., Valens, M. (2001). Teaching and testing oral communication skills. Journal of Humanities and Natural Sciences,3, 43-53. Pino, B. G. (1998). Prochievement testing of speaking: matching instructor expectations, learner proficiency level, and task types. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 3, (3), 119-133.

National Parks or National Problems? Essay -- Critical Thinking Essays

A bear meanders across the road several hundred yards in front of your slowly moving vehicle. A doe and her fawn leap back into the brush as you approach. The sun shines in such a way that it seems the mountains above you go on forever. This pristine image of our nation's national parks is unfortunately getting harder to find today. The approximately 270 million visitors to the parks annually have begun to take their toll on the wild and preserved areas of our nation. Congress created the world's first national park, Yellowstone, in 1872. For many years after the beginning of Yellowstone (and other such parks), the wilderness could be viewed from afar, but not entered. Camping within park limits was something that was just not done by visitors (National Park Service, Caring for Legacy, 1). The national parks were much less accessible to the public sector in the early 1900's than they presently are. A staggering 68% of Americans have visited at least one area of the National Park System today, and all these visits have undoubtedly led to the gradual degradation of our parks (Rettie, 124). Our National Park Service, or the NPS, is the agency responsible for the upkeep and management of the national parks (Rettie, ix). The service was created in 1916 (National Park Service, When Did the NPS, 1). The early parks, including Yellowstone, didn't have a central governing body for over forty years. This meant that the first parks had to struggle to stay alive and running. In addition, many fell into ruin due to lack of public support or due to the fact that some Americans didn't even know that these parks existed. People also weren't sure how to handle themselves within park boundaries, which is still a problem today. Several of the ... ... American Press, 1990. Keiter, Robert B., and Mark S. Boyce, eds. The Greater Yellowstone System. London: Yale University Press, 1991. Leal, Donald R., and Holly Lippke Fretwell. "Users Must Pay to Save Our National Parks." Consumers' Research Magazine, August 1997. First Search. Online. 12 Oct. 1998. National Park Service. "Caring for the American Legacy." http://www.nps.gov/legacy/mission.html. (24 Nov. 1998). National Park Service. "Fire in the National Parks." http://www.nps.gov/pub_aff/issues/fire.html. (15 Nov. 1998). National Park Service. "National Park Resources in Peril." http://www.nps.gov/pub_aff/issues/paril_p_.html. (20 Nov. 1998). National Park Service. "When Did the NPS Begin?" http://www.nps.gov/legacy/legacy.html. (20 Nov. 1998). Rettie, Dwight F. Our National Park System. Urbana and Chicago: University Of Illinois Press, 1995.